The Development of Ceramics in Australia

Background to the Fifties and Sixties

Two things happened at the end of the war. Internationally, many Europeans migrated to America and America became representational of the new and the free and the perceived centre of the art world moved from Paris to New York.³⁶ In Australia, on the other hand, it was known as the 'dead decade'. ³⁷ A conservative government and ruling class ensured a cultural bareness for most artists, and many left Australia for more inspiration shores. ³⁸

However, by the late fifties and during the sixties ceramics in Australia was abound once again by overseas influences. Artists traveled more than ever before, there were reactions to industry, direct links with Asian countries, the influence of individual artists, the political climate, and the establishment of ceramic communities were all becoming part of the growing diversity in Australian ceramics.

Three influences in particular can be directly linked to irrevocable changes that took place during this time. Influences through the Bernard Leach philosophies and individual artists professing his doctrine; Californian Funk and the advent of a differing view about what ceramics could be and our own direct links to Japan through travel and exchanges.

Bernard Leach
Bernard Leach influenced Australian pottery both philosophically and aesthetically. Through the influence of his book A Potter's Book, there was a move from the use of earthenware clays to stoneware, bringing with it a stoneware aesthetic and stoneware technologies. ³⁹ Easy instructions to kiln building made high firing cycles accessible and the use of high-fired clays possible. Workable glaze recipes stripped away beliefs that glaze technologies were sacred.

Leach's own philosophical and aesthetic influences were based upon the folk craft potters ⁴⁰ of Japan. He believed in "a spiritual ordering of the domestic and working environment based on simplicity, harmony and beauty."⁴¹ and "the use so far as possible of natural materials in the endeavour to obtain the best quality of body and glaze; in throwing and in striving toward unity, spontaneity and a simplicity of form and in general the subordination of all attempts at technical cleverness to straightforward unselfconscious workmanship".⁴²

As Oliver Watson states in Bernard Leach: Rewriting a Life, "...his art is based on the making of humble utility wares, the epitome of true potters work; good handmade domestic pots within reach of the ordinary user...low in price but maintaining the liveliness of form and beauty of texture and glaze inherent in good handmade pots".⁴³

Both Leach in 1962, and Cardew, in 1968,⁴⁴ a student and advocate of Leach philosophies, visited Australia. By this time there had emerged a serious approach to professionalism.⁴⁵

Californian Funk
During the 1960's Australia had become more dependent on America for it's cultural reassurance.⁴⁶ An expressionist use of clay had developed in California during the 50's and reached Australia in the sixties. Clay was being used as a vehicle for political, satirical and social commentary. Personal statements and feminist, social and moral issues were becoming evident. The use of clay was being disassociated from the 'lifestyle' and 'aesthetics' of the Lechian philosophy.

What emerged was a split in discipline. Differing views about what ceramics could be⁴⁷ meant, for some, a turning away from the Bernard Leach Japanese-inspired traditions of pottery that had dominated Western ceramics for the previous 40 years. For others it meant a renewed interest in tradition.

The environment in Adelaide was ripe for such changes in attitude and we saw the rise of what became known as Skangaroovian Funk. The new purpose built South Australian School of Art attracted enthusiastic and influential artists and students. Ben Kypridakis, Bill Gregory, and Bill Clements were all lecturers at the school and were influential in the culmination of the movement. Ben Kypridakis, an American-born and trained ceramist was a maker of lyrical stoneware based on functional forms.⁴⁸, Bill Gregory was from England where "the worlds most remarkable new developments in popular culture and fashion seemed to be happening."⁴⁹ Gregory had definite philosophies that brought new vision and technologies to the school.⁵⁰ He believed if a pot was to be functional then it must be functional, including all significant elements of industrial design.⁵¹ If, however, its function were aesthetic, then all considerations relative to producing art objects in other media should be prominent.⁵² Bill Clements also brought fresh philosophies and ideas to the school. During the three years he spent in Japan he developed his own "oblique, allusive language of forms and symbols",⁵³ making ceramic sculpture following Japanese traditions. This was quite different from the western use of clay in sculpture where it was used as a sketch medium to explore scale and ideas.

Younger artists such as Margaret Dodd, Tim Morehead, Mark Thompson, Joan Grounds and Ken Leeson explored these new attitudes. Margaret Dodd is perhaps the most well known ceramist of the period. Initially studying at the South Australian School of Art she also studied sculpture at the University of California where she became part of the funk movement. Dodd worked with motor vehicles, which represented and symbolised her environment. On returning to Australia the Holden car became her icon which she used as metaphor.⁵⁴ Dodd also used commercial materials, glazes and enamels and prepared and reliable clays - the antithesis of what was commonly being taught to art students at the time.

Milton Moon, in 1969, who espoused the Japanese pottery tradition, was in charge of the new Ceramics department at the school. These diametrically opposed philosophies aroused vital discussion and debates. As McGrath stated at the 8th National Ceramics Conference, "The two attitudes, one of utility, beauty and emotion and the other of intellectual construct and commentary, gave a fullness to ceramic practices."⁵⁵

Direct Links with Japan
With improved communication and travel Australian potters began traveling to Japan and became apprentices and students to Japanese master potters. It was the beginning of the end of Japanese influences through books and the third person and the ongoing interest in Japanese stonewares continued to play a significant role in the development of ceramics in Australia.⁵⁶

During this time Japanese potters were also invited to Australia to lecture, give workshops and to exhibit.⁵⁷ Shigeo Shiga, who was invited to Australia in 1966 by Blakebrough, worked at the Sturt pottery in Mittagong and remained in Australia until 1979. In 1965 Shoji Hamada gave demonstrations at the East Sydney Technical College with Peter Rushforth and at the University of New South Wales with Ivan McMeekin.⁵⁸ Japanese ceramists and sculptors began to settle in Australia - potters such Kiyoshi Ino, Hiroe Swen, and Mitsuo Shoji.

It has been interesting to discover the influence Australia has had on these potters. Kiyoshi Ino states, "I stayed in Australia initially because I liked the country..." ⁵⁹; Hiroe Swen has been influenced by 'the striking colours and textures of the bark of trees, the chirping of the birds, the centuries-old stones...";⁶⁰ Mitsuo Shoji found "the traditional world of ceramics in Japan tyrannical...and only in Australia I could become myself. I can be very free in Australia."⁶¹

During the mid-80's an exhibition was held at Project 42 looking at contemporary Japanese potters and sculptors in Australia.⁶² Ken Scarlett voiced the question, "Is it conceivable that Australia is starting to influence some contemporary Japanese artists?"⁶³

Over the ensuing years we have seen exhibitions such as the International Crafts Triennial, initiated in 1989 and "devoted to forging and identifying the many links between craft and design here and abroad", The 1998 Triennial, Nature as Object examined the material cultures of Japan, Finland and Australia and their response to their unique natural environments.⁶⁴ A further example - Edge to Edge: Australian Contemporary Art to Japan, toured Japan in 1988-89.⁶⁵

The Contemporary Australian Craft exhibition, touring Japan in 1999 as part of the 1999 Olympic Arts Festival: Reaching the Word, perhaps went a little further than most in imparting an understanding of the diversity in Australian ceramics and the deepening of a genuine interest in our crafts. Throughout the period leading up to the exhibition Mokoto Tomana, curator at the Hokkaido Museum of Modern Art, Migishi Kotaro, Museum of Art,, Hokkaido; Toshimichi Kuwayama, Museum of Modern Art, Shigal, Kazue Morita, Japanese Association of Art Museums; and Naoko Tomana, curator Hakkaido Museum of Modern Art, all, at some stage, traveled to Australia, encompassing Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney and the Northern Territory. Collectively they interviewed over thirty-one artists who presented artworks, slides and reference materials; they worked closely with the Powerhouse Museum and curators Claire Roberts and Grace Cochrane gaining valuable historic and contemporary information on Australian craft; spoke to numerous galleries and visited a number of aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory.

After such a rich experience, their final understanding of Australian craft was best summed up by Migishi Kotaro; "Australian society can be compared to a mosaic consisting of countless coloured glass pieces fused together one by one...the integration of different cultures in such a mosaic pattern is an important feature necessary to explain today's Australian craft world."⁶⁶

Speaking to Emi Hagimoto, originally an exchange student from Japan, who has chosen to do her Bachelor of Arts Honours year at the ANU in Canberra, I asked her why Australia? Her reply was interesting and surprising. She had concluded that the level of dedication students applied to their work at the ANU and the emphasis on technical skills had drawn her back to the University. So, yes, perhaps it is conceivable that Australia will have an influence on Japanese artists.

There are many areas of Japanese influence in Australia that I have not even begun to touch upon. Raku and Bizen firing techniques, now so commonly accepted as part of our own ceramic culture; Australian artists such as Les Blakebrough and Colin Levy, having had training under Takeichi Kawai and Yu Fujiwara, respectively, who have, in turn, influenced so many Australian artists; student exchange programmes, such as at the ANU where, biannually, a group of Japanese students undertake a three-week exchange/workshop programme with students from the ANU; and industry, where Japanese imports have influenced design and personal aesthetic. I see this influence emerging in my own work and find myself being drawn to the work of Japanese artists and their glazes.